What Were the Roman Tribunes

In ancient Rome, there were different types of tribunes, including military tribunes, consular tribunes, and plebeian tribunes. The word tribune is connected with the word tribe, in Latin (tribunus and tribus) just as in English. Originally, a tribune represented a tribe; later, tribune refers to a variety of officers. Here are three of the main types of tribunes youll find in reading ancient Roman history. You may be frustrated by historians presumption that you know which type of tribune the writer is referring to when he simply uses the word tribune, however  if you read carefully, you should be able to figure it out from the context. Military Tribunes Military tribunes were the six most senior officers in a legion. They were of the equestrian or occasionally, the senatorial class (by the imperial period, one was normally of the senatorial class), and were expected to have already served at least five years in the military. Military tribunes were in charge of the troops welfare and discipline, but not tactics. In the time of Julius Caesar, the legates began eclipsing the tribunes in importance. Officers for the first four legions were elected by the people. For the other legions, the commanders did the appointing. Consular Tribunes Consular tribunes may have been adopted as a military expedient in an era of war  when more military leaders were needed. It was an annually elected position open to both patricians and plebeians, but didnt have the possibility of the triumph as a reward, and kept the patricians—at least initially—from having to open up the office of consul to the plebeians. The position of consular tribune appears during the period of the conflict of the orders (patrician and plebeian). Shortly after the replacement of the consuls with consular tribunes, the office of the censor—which was open to plebeians—was created. The period of 444-406 saw an increase in the number of consular tribunes from three to four and later, six. The consular tribunes were discontinued in 367. Tribunes of the Plebeians The tribune of the plebeians may be the most familiar of the tribunes. Tribune of the plebeians is the position coveted by Clodius the beautiful, the nemesis of Cicero, and the man who led Caesar to divorce his wife on the grounds that his wife should be above suspicion. The tribunes of the plebeians were, like the consular tribunes, part of the solution of the conflict between patricians and plebeians during the Roman Republic. Probably originally meant more as a sop thrown to the plebeians by the patricians, the sop became a very powerful position in the machinery of the Roman government. Although the tribunes of the Plebeians could not lead an army and lacked imperium, they had the power of the veto and their persons were sacrosanct. Their power was great enough that Clodius gave up his patrician status to become a plebeian so he could run for this office. There were originally two of the Tribunes of the Plebeians, but by 449 B.C., there were ten. Other Types of Tribunes In M. Cary and H.H. Scullards A History of Rome (3rd Edition 1975) is a glossary that includes the following tribunes-related items: Tribuni aerarii:  Census class next to equites.Tribuni celerum: Cavalry commanders.Tribuni militares consulari potestate: Tribunes of the soldiers with consular power.Tribuni militum: Infantry commanders.Tribuni plebis:  Local landowners who became champions of the plebs; tribunes.Tribunicia potestas:  Tribunes power. Sources tribuni militum Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World. Ed. John Roberts. Oxford University Press, 2007.The Original Nature of the Consular Tribunate, Ann Boddington  Historia: Zeitschrift fà ¼r Alte Geschichte, Vol. 8, No. 3 (Jul., 1959), pp. 356-364The Significance of the Consular Tribunate, E. S. Staveley  The Journal of Roman Studies,  Vol. 43, (1953), pp. 30-36Consular Tribunes and Their Successors, F. E. Adcock  The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 47, No. 1/2 (1957), pp. 9-14

The Curriculum And Assessment Framework - 2157 Words

Over the past decade there have been vast changes to our education system here in Northern Ireland. The revamp of the curriculum is described by CCEA (2007) as ‘a curriculum and assessment framework that is capable of meeting the changing needs of pupils, society and the economy.’ Despite the review tackling proposals for change across a wide variety of areas within the curriculum, it can be said that it has failed to meet the changing needs of the pupils in terms of learner voice. Rodgers (2005) defines leaner voice as ‘the active opportunity for students to express their opinions and make decisions regarding the planning, implementation and evaluation of their learning experiences.’ This definition is very fitting to our society today†¦show more content†¦There are various strategies that can be employed to support pupil voice both within the classroom and whole school context. One of the main up and coming strategies that schools seem to be foc using on is that of a school council. School councils are the easiest way for schools to give pupils their say and make decisions about current issues. â€Å"School councils are a very tangible manifestation of pupil voice. They can be important in offering a formal, democratic, transparent and accountable whole-school forum for pupil participation, linking to the broader governance framework of a school† (Alderson 2000:121-34). Surrounding every strategy, there is a widely seen debate about how beneficial or problematic each strategy is. For school councils to be beneficial in promoting pupil voice, there must be a fair representation of all pupils within the school. Levin (1998) described the moral concept surrounding this strategy where democratic practice should lie among the least powerful. The least powerful in our schools are the younger pupils, the quiet pupils and those pupils with SEN. When all individuals are fairly represented the system will lend to adequate and successful learner voice. School councils allow pupils to see first-hand how their needs and views will be responded to and how their opinions will be valued by all. They can be contextualised to a classroom environment whereby each class has a council

Carl Gauss Essay Example For Students

Carl Gauss Essay Carl Gauss was a man who is known for making a great deal breakthroughs in the wide variety of his work in both mathematics and physics. He is responsible for immeasurable contributions to the fields of number theory, analysis, differential geometry, geodesy, magnetism, astronomy, and optics, as well as many more. The concepts that he himself created have had an immense influence in many areas of the mathematic and scientific world. Carl Gauss was born Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss, on the thirtieth of April, 1777, in Brunswick, Duchy of Brunswick (now Germany). Gauss was born into an impoverished family, raised as the only son of a bricklayer. Despite the hard living conditions, Gausss brilliance shone through at a young age. At the age of only two years, the young Carl gradually learned from his parents how to pronounce the letters of the alphabet. Carl then set to teaching himself how to read by sounding out the combinations of the letters. Around the time that Carl was teaching himself to read aloud, he also taught himself the meanings of number symbols and learned to do arithmetical calculations. When Carl Gauss reached the age of seven, he began elementary school. His potential for brilliance was recognized immediately. Gausss teacher Herr Buttner, had assigned the class a difficult problem of addition in which the students were to find the sum of the integers from one to one hundred. While his classmates toiled over the addition, Carl sat and pondered the question. He invented the shortcut formula on the spot, and wrote down the correct answer. Carl came to the conclusion that the sum of the integers was 50 pairs of numbers each pair summing to one hundred and one, thus simple multiplication followed and the answer could be found. This act of sheer genius was so astounding to Herr Buttner that the teacher took the young Gauss under his wing and taught him fervently on the subject of arithmetic. He paid for the best textbooks obtainable out of his own pocket and presented them to Gauss, who reportedly flashed through them. In 1788 Gauss began his education at the Gymnasium, with the assistance of his past teacher Buttner, where he learned High German and Latin. After receiving a scholarship from the Duke of Brunswick, Gauss entered Brunswick Collegium Carolinum in 1792. During his time spent at the academy Gauss independently discovered Bodes law, the binomial theorem, and the arithmetic-geometric mean, as well as the law of quadratic reciprocity and the prime number theorem. In 1795, an ambitious Gauss left Brunswick to study at Gottingen University. His teacher there was Kaestner, whom Gauss was known to often ridicule. During his entire time spent at Gottingen Gauss was known to acquire only one friend among his peers, Farkas Bolyai, whom he met in 1799 and stayed in touch with for many years. In 1798 Gauss left Gottingen without a diploma. This did not mean that his efforts spent in the university were wasted. By this time he had made on of his most important discoveries, this was the construction of a regular seventeen-gon by ruler and compasses. This was the most important advancement in this field since the time of Greek mathematics. In the summer of 1801 Gauss published his first book, Disquisitiones Arithmeticae, under a gratuity from the Duke of Brunswick. The book had seven sections, each of these sections but the last, which documented his construction of the 17-gon, were devoted to number theory. In June of 1801, Zach an astronomer whom Gauss had come to know two or three years before, published the orbital positions of, Ceres, a new small planet, otherwise know as an asteroid. Part of Zachs publication included Gausss prediction for the orbit of this celestial body, which greatly differed from those predictions made by others. When Ceres was rediscovered it was almost exactly where Gauss had predicted it to be. Although Gauss did not disclose his methods at the time, it was found that he had used his least squares approximation method. This successful prediction started off Gausss long involvement with the field of astronomy.On October ninth, 1805 Gauss was married to Johana Ostoff. Although Gauss lived a happy personal life for the first time, he was shattered by the death of his benefactor, The Duke of Brunswick, who was killed fighting for the Prussian army. In 1807 Gauss left Brunswick to take up the position of director of the Gottingen observatory. This was a time of m any changes for Carl Gauss. Gauss had made his way to Gottingen by late 1807. The following year his father died, and a year following that tragedy, his wife Johanna died giving birth to their second son, who was to die shortly after her. Understandably Gausss life was shattered, he turned to his friends and colleagues for support. The next year, Gauss was married a second time. His new wife was named Minna, she was the best friend of Johanna. Although the couple had three children, this second marriage seemed to be somewhat of a expedience for Gauss. .u532ceb8c27f6fcae13917f1d4442763c , .u532ceb8c27f6fcae13917f1d4442763c .postImageUrl , .u532ceb8c27f6fcae13917f1d4442763c .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u532ceb8c27f6fcae13917f1d4442763c , .u532ceb8c27f6fcae13917f1d4442763c:hover , .u532ceb8c27f6fcae13917f1d4442763c:visited , .u532ceb8c27f6fcae13917f1d4442763c:active { border:0!important; } .u532ceb8c27f6fcae13917f1d4442763c .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u532ceb8c27f6fcae13917f1d4442763c { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u532ceb8c27f6fcae13917f1d4442763c:active , .u532ceb8c27f6fcae13917f1d4442763c:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u532ceb8c27f6fcae13917f1d4442763c .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u532ceb8c27f6fcae13917f1d4442763c .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u532ceb8c27f6fcae13917f1d4442763c .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u532ceb8c27f6fcae13917f1d4442763c .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u532ceb8c27f6fcae13917f1d4442763c:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u532ceb8c27f6fcae13917f1d4442763c .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u532ceb8c27f6fcae13917f1d4442763c .u532ceb8c27f6fcae13917f1d4442763c-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u532ceb8c27f6fcae13917f1d4442763c:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Things Fall Paper EssayGausss work was not visibly affected by these life altering events. In 1809, he went on to publish his second book Theoria motus corporum coelestium in sectionibus conicis Solem ambientium. This publishing was a profound two volume thesis on the motion of celestial bodies. Gausss contributions in the field of theoretical astronomy continued until the year 1817. Gauss himself continued making observations until the age of seventy. In 1818, Gauss was asked to carry out a geodesic (a study in which predictions are made of exact points or area sizes of the earths surface) survey of the state of Hanover, to link with the existing Danish grid. Gauss eagerly accepted the job, and took personal charge of the survey. He made his measurements by day, and reduced them by night, using his incredible mental ability for calculations. To aid him in his survey, Gauss invented the heliotrope, which worked by reflecting the Suns rays using a design of mirrors and a small telescope. But inaccurate base lines used for the survey and an unsatisfactory network of triangles. Gauss often doubted his work in the profession, but over the course of ten years, from 1820 to 1830, published over seventy papers. From the early 1800s Gauss had had an interest in the question of the possible existence of a non-Euclidean geometry. In a book review of 1816 Gauss discussed proofs which suggested and supported his belief in non-Euclidean geometry (which was later proved to exist), though he was quite vague. Gauss later confined in one of his fellow theoreticians that he believed his reputation would suffer if he admitted to the public the existence of such a geometry. The period of time from 1817 to 1832 was a particularly hard time for Gauss. He took in his sick mother, who stayed with him until her death twenty-two years later. At the same time he was in a dispute with his wife and her family about whether they should move to Berlin, where Gauss had been offered a job. Minna, his wife, and hr family were enthusiastic about the move, but Gauss, who did not like change, decided to stay in Gottingen. Minna died in 1831 after a long illness. In 1832, Gauss and a colleague of his, Wilhelm Weber, began studying the theory of terrestrial magnetism. Gauss was quite enthusiastic about this prospect and by 1840, had written three important papers on the subject. These papers all dealt the current theories on terrestrial magnetism, absolute measure for magnetic force, and an empirical definition of terrestrial magnetism. Gauss and Weber achieved much in their six years together. The two discovered Kirchoffs laws, as well as building a primitive telegraph device. However, this was just an enjoyable hobby of Gausss. He was more interested in the task of setting up a world wide net of magnetic observation points. This vocation produced a great deal of concrete results. The Magnetischer Verein and its journal were conceived, and the atlas of geomagnetism was published. From 1850 onwards Gausss work was that of nearly all practical nature. He disputed over a modified Foucalt pendulum in 1854, and was also able to attend the opening of the new railway link between Hanover and Gottingen, but this outing proved to be his last. The health of Carl Gauss deteriorated slowly and he died in his sleep early in the morning of February 23, 1855. Carl Gausss influence in the worlds of science and mathematics has been immeasurable. His abstract findings have changed the way in which we study our world. In Gausss lifetime he did work on a number of concepts for which he never published, because he felt them to be incomplete. Every one of these ideas (including complex variable, non-Euclidean geometry, and the mathematical foundations of physics) was later discovered by other mathematicians. Although he was not awarded the credit for these particular discoveries, he found his reward with the pursuit of such research, and finding the truth for its own sake. He is a great man and his achievements will not be forgotten. .u84f79e3e5853659c196ee63ea139b131 , .u84f79e3e5853659c196ee63ea139b131 .postImageUrl , .u84f79e3e5853659c196ee63ea139b131 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u84f79e3e5853659c196ee63ea139b131 , .u84f79e3e5853659c196ee63ea139b131:hover , .u84f79e3e5853659c196ee63ea139b131:visited , .u84f79e3e5853659c196ee63ea139b131:active { border:0!important; } .u84f79e3e5853659c196ee63ea139b131 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u84f79e3e5853659c196ee63ea139b131 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u84f79e3e5853659c196ee63ea139b131:active , .u84f79e3e5853659c196ee63ea139b131:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u84f79e3e5853659c196ee63ea139b131 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u84f79e3e5853659c196ee63ea139b131 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u84f79e3e5853659c196ee63ea139b131 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u84f79e3e5853659c196ee63ea139b131 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u84f79e3e5853659c196ee63ea139b131:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u84f79e3e5853659c196ee63ea139b131 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u84f79e3e5853659c196ee63ea139b131 .u84f79e3e5853659c196ee63ea139b131-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u84f79e3e5853659c196ee63ea139b131:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Clean Well Lighted Place (908 words) EssayBibliography:n/a

What Is Culture Essays (599 words) - Anthropology,

What Is Culture? What is Culture? With a diverse population existing in the United States today, our country is a melting pot of different cultures, each one unique in its own respect. Culture, distinguishing one societal group from another, includes beliefs, behaviors, language, traditions, art, fashion styles, food, religion, politics, and economic systems. Through lifelong and ever changing processes of learning, creativity, and sharing, culture shapes our patterns of behavior and thinking. A cultures significance is so profound that it touches almost every aspect of who and what we are. Culture becomes the lens through which we perceive and evaluate what is going on around us (Henslin, 1993). Trying to define the complex term of culture with varying elements of distinguishable characteristics is a difficult task. Perhaps, a description of a culture would be easier to explain. For instance, an Iranian woman has just appeared in your office for services and it is immediately evident that her culture is very different than yours. First, her dark colored clothing covers her entire body from head to toe, including a black veil over her face. Secondly, as she speaks, a cultural difference is detected in both, her language and gestures. Her accent and the non-visible facial expressions create a barrier for comprehending the communication. Later, as the service for the woman progresses, her beliefs, values, and norms of her culture are dispelled. For example, in order for the woman to show her face to another male in public, she must first request permission from her husband to unveil. During further discussion, it becomes even more apparent, that this Iranian woman is subservien t and possesses a lower level of status than that of Iranian males. All of these characteristics are indicative of this womans culture. As conveyed in the above description, the characteristics represent the unique symbols of ones culture. Symbols, in representative form of communication, art, expressions, materials, and so on, allow a cultural group to develop complex thoughts and to exchange those thoughts with each other. Through the exchanging of symbols, ones cultural ideas, beliefs, and values, are passed on from one generation to the next. People are not born with culture; they have to learn it. Throughout the development of the entire life span, culture is learned from the society in which we live. Furthermore, in the diverse population of the United States, ethnic groups or societies will have to interact with other groups outside the realm of their individual self. In order to do so, it is necessary for the societies to exchange languages, ideas, or even, technology. In addition, the changing environments of the world population requires a need for cultural adaptation for basic survival. For example, a move from the United States, where basic resources are plentiful, to Russia, where the resources are scarce, would force an adaptation to the cultural differences in order to develop a new lifestyle. In conclusion, culture defines who we are, how we think, and how we behave. Some kinds of culture are include better means of making life securer than others. Cultural traits that offer some advantages, utility, or even pleasures are sought and accepted by societies. According to a prominent anthropologist, Culture is contagious. A culture is a means to an end: the security and continuity of life. (Britannica.com, p.12). References Henslin, J. (1993). Sociology: a down to earth approach. Needham Heights: Simon & Schuster, Inc. Introduction to culture. Britannica Encyclopedia. Retrieved Sept. 8, 2000 from the World Wide Web: http://www.britannica.com/bcom/ed/article/6/0,5716,118246+12+109857,00.html Sociology